Crucifixion
 |
Artistic depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus. |
Crucifixion is an ancient method of
execution, where the victim was tied or nailed to a large wooden
cross and left to hang there until dead. It was widely considered a not uncommon but extremely dishonorable and painful form of judicial execution in the
Roman Empire, though similar methods were employed in other ancient cultures such as
Persia.
Crucifixion was used by the Romans until about
AD 313, when Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and soon became the official state religion. However, it has been used in various places in modern times.
Since
Jesus Christ was crucified, the
crucifix became the main symbol of
Christianity; an alternative clandestine symbol, since Roman persecution, was the
Ichthys.
Crucifixion was rarely performed for ritual or symbolic reasons, but usually to provide a particularly painful (hence the term
excruciating), gruesome (disuading) and public (hence the metonymic expression 'to nail to the cross') death, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Widely different crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period.
Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first stripped
naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was
scourged. After this, the victim was dressed again, and if able was made to drag the cross (usually weighing 150 lb or more) to the place of execution. At this point he was again stripped naked, and was either fastened to it, or impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, the
crux simplex of
Justus Lipsius, a single stake was used.
The other method is described in the
New Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus. In such a case, after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a
gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse, from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in deciding this.
It is not quite clear which of these two plans was followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general opinion has been that he was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the crucifixion which depict him as mounting a ladder placed against the cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary offering of himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted, however, that among the
Emblems of the Passion, as they are called, and which were very favorite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails, spear and other related items.
Cross shape
The horizontal beam of the cross, or transom, could be fixed at the very top of the vertical piece, the upright, to form a capital T called a
tau cross or
Saint Anthony's cross. According to some unlikely theories, this shape had its origin in ancient Babylonia as the symbol of the god
Tammuz, being in the shape of the mystic
Tau, the Greek initial of his name. The horizontal beam could also be affixed at some distance below the top, often in a mortise, to form a lowercase t-shape called a Latin cross, and a sign was fastened to the top with the name of the victim, used for executing kings. To mock Christ as "King of the Jews," tradition holds that Christ was crucified on such a cross. Alternatively, the cross could consist of two diagonal beams to form an X, alternatively known as the decussate cross (after
decem, Latin for 'ten', 'X' being the Roman numeral for ten) or as
Saint Andrew's cross.
Additionally, evidence supports the theory that malefactors were sometimes nailed to a 'crux simplex', a single, upright wooden stake, with no transom at all, which was often used for ancient ordeals similar to crucifixion. The original Greek word 'stauros', typically translated 'cross', actually indicates a simple upright pole or stake. Similarly, the Greek word 'xy'lon', also translated 'cross', literally means 'a stick, club, or tree' (as is the official belief of the
Jehovah's Witnesses). It is believed that by the middle of the 3rd century AD, pagans received into the churches sometimes retained their pagan signs and symbols, hence the Tau or T, with the cross-piece lowered, is said to have been adopted to stand for the cross of Christ. Of course, archaeological and literary evidence discussed elsewhere in this article supports the belief that actual crosses were indeed used as a very real means of execution, but certain hagiographies concur with occasional variations in shape,
e.g. upside down or X-shaped (
saltire). Also, prior to Jesus' crucifixion, in the Roman territory of Judea, criminals and rebels were put to death by crucifixion, and documents suggest that the cross used was a Y shape, each arm going up on one extension of the Y.
Location of the nails
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Religious depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus typically show him supported by nails through the palms. |
For the sake of expediency, the victim was probably affixed to the cross by ropes, nails, or some combination of the two. In popular depictions of crucifixion (possibly derived from a literal reading of the translated description in the
Gospel of John, of Jesus' wounds being 'in the hands'), the victim is shown supported only by nails driven straight through the feet and the palms of the hands, which is possible, if there was a foot-rest to relieve the weight; on their own, the hands could not support the full body weight.
Another possibility, that does not require tying, is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, between the two bones of the forearm (the
radius and the
ulna). The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four
carpal bones (which is the location shown in the
Shroud of Turin). As some historians have suggested, the Gospel word χειρ (
cheir) that is translated as 'hand' may have in fact included everything below the mid-forearm. Indeed, Acts 12:7 uses this word to report chains falling off from Peter's 'hands', although the chains would be around what we would call 'wrists'. This shows that the semantic range of χειρ is wider than the English 'hand', and can incorporate nails through the wrist.
Another possibility, suggested by
Frederick Zugibe, is that the nails may have been driven in on an angle, entering in the palm in the crease that delineates the bulky region at the base of the thumb, and exiting in the wrist, passing through the
carpal tunnel.
A
sedile, or a foot-rest, was often attached to the cross, for the purpose of taking the man's weight off the wrists. This was most likely a simple peg or slab of wood, upon which the victim would rest the feet.
A new study and a documentary on the
National Geographic Channel's
Quest For Truth: The Crucifixion, as well as
brief news article on the experiment and the documentary, have shown that a person can be suspended by the wrists. Nailing the feet to the side of the cross relieves strain on the wrists by placing most of the weight on the lower body. The palms were probably not the location for the nails, because there are no structures in the hands to prevent the nails from ripping through the flesh due to the weight of the body.
Cause of death
Death could come in hours or days, depending on exact methods, the health of those crucified, and environmental circumstances.
A theory attributed to
Pierre Barbet holds that the typical cause of death was
asphyxiation. He conjectured that when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the victim would have severe difficulty exhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the lungs. The victim would therefore have to draw himself up by his arms, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. Indeed, Roman executioners were said to break the victim's legs, after he had hung for some time, in order to hasten his death. Once deprived of support and unable to lift himself, the victim would die within a few minutes.
If death did not come from asphyxiation, it could result from a number of other causes, including physical
shock caused by the
scourging that preceded the crucifixion, and the nailing itself,
dehydration and exhaustion.
Experiments by
Frederick Zugibe have revealed that, when suspended with arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical, test subjects had no difficulty breathing, only rapidly-increasing discomfort and pain. This would correspond to the Roman use of crucifixion as a prolonged, agonizing, humiliating death. Zugibe claims that the breaking of the crucified victim's legs to hasten death, mentioned in the Gospel accounts, was done in order to cause severe traumatic shock or death by fat
embolism, and only as a
coup de grace. Crucifixion on a single pole with no transom, with hands affixed over one's head, would precipitate rapid asphyxiation if no block was provided to stand on, or once the legs were broken.
It was, however, possible to survive crucifixion, and there are records of people who did (as with
hanging in the West).
Despite the fact that the ancient Jewish historian
Josephus, as well as other sources, refer to the crucifixion of thousands of people by the Romans, there is only a single archeological discovery of a crucified body dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus which was discovered in Jerusalem. It is not surprising that there is only one such discovery, because a crucified body was usually left to decay on the cross and therefore would not be preserved. The only reason these archeological remains were preserved was because family members gave this particular individual a customary burial.
The remains were found accidentally in an
ossuary with the crucified man's name on it, 'Yehohanan, the son of Hagakol'. The ossuary contained a heel with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the heels may have been driven through the sides of the tree (one on the left side, one on the right side, and not with both feet together in front). The nail had olive wood on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olivewood or on an olive tree. Since olive trees are not very tall, this would suggest that victims were crucified at eye level. Additionally, the piece of olive wood was located between the heel and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the victim from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. His legs were found broken. It is thought that since in Roman times iron was expensive, the nails were removed from the dead body to cut the costs, which would help to explain why only one has been found, as the back of the nail was bent in such a way that it couldn't be removed.
Important references for the ancient practice of crucifixion and an examination of archeological evidence: * Tzaferis, Vassilios. "Crucifixion -- The Archaeological Evidence",
Biblical Archaeology Review 11, February, 1985: 44–53.
* Zias, Joseph. "The Crucified Man from Giv'at Ha-Mivtar: A Reappraisal",
Israel Exploration Journal 35 (1), 1985: 22–27.
* Hengel, Martin.
Crucifixion (Augsburg Fortress, 1977). ISBN 080061268X.
Persia, Alexander and other pre-Roman states
Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times. It was used by
Assyria,
Pharaonic Egypt,
Achaemenid Persia, the Greeks, Carthaginians, Macedonians, and, from very early times, by the Romans.
The earliest recording of a crucifixion was in 519 BC when
Darius I, the Persian
King of Kings, crucified 3000 political opponents in
Babylon.
It has been thought, too, that crucifixion was also used by the Jews themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deuteronomium xxi. 22, 23) as a punishment to be inflicted, though this reference is commonly associated with
lynching.
There is evidence that captured pirates were crucified in the port of Athens around the 7th Century BC.
Alexander the Great is reputed to have executed 2000 survivors from his siege of the Phoenician city of
Tyre, as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's friend
Hephaestion.
Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified
Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of royal adoration.
In Carthage, crucifixion was an established mode of execution, which could even be imposed on a general for suffering a major defeat.
Roman Empire
In
Rome the custom of crucifixion may have developed out of the primitive custom of
arbori suspendere, hanging - nailed or bound - on the
arbor infelix, 'unfortunate tree' which was dedicated to the gods of the nether world (Seneca ("Epistola", 101) still calls the cross
infelix lignum, 'unfortunate wood'; trees were often used for crucifying convicts, e.g. Tertullian, "Apologia", viii. 16), and/or be adopted from
Carthage, and was used for
slaves, rebels,
pirates and especially-despised enemies and
criminals. Therefore crucifixion was considered a most
ignominious way to die. Condemned Roman citizens were usually exempt from crucifixion (like feudal nobles from hanging, dying more honorably by decapitation) except for major crimes against the state, such as high
treason.
The Romans used it for the crimes of piracy, highway robbery, assassination, forgery, false testimony, mutiny, high treason and rebellion.Notorious mass crucifixions followed the
Third Servile War (the slave rebellion under
Spartacus), the
Roman Civil War and the destruction of
Jerusalem.
Josephus tells a story of the Romans crucifying people along the walls of Jerusalem. He also says that the Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. In Roman-style crucifixion, the victim took days to die slowly from suffocation " caused by the victim's blood-supply slowly draining away, to a quantity insufficient to supply the required oxygen to vital organs. The dead body was left up for
vultures and other birds to consume.
The goal of Roman crucifixion was not just to kill the criminal, but also to mutilate and dishonour the body of the condemned. In ancient tradition, an honourable death required burial; leaving a body on the cross, so as to mutilate it and prevent its burial, was a grave dishonour for the victim.
Under ancient Roman penal practice, crucifixion was not only a means of execution, but also a means of exhibiting the criminal's low social status. It was the most dishonourable death imaginable, originally reserved for slaves, hence still called 'supplicium servil' by
Seneca, later extended to provincial freedmen of obscure station ('humiles'). The elite of Roman society (only about 10% of the population) were almost never subject to corporal punishments; instead, they were fined or exiled. Josephus mentions Jews of high rank who were crucified, but this was to point out that their status had been taken away from them. Control of one's own body was vital in the ancient world.
Capital punishment took away control over one's own body, thereby implying a loss of status and honour. The Romans often broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death, and usually forbade burial.
A cruel prelude was scourging, which would cause the victim to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of
shock. The convict then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (
patibulum in
Latin) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross. Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding
centurion and four soldiers. When it was done in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (
stipes) could even be permanently embedded in the ground. The victim was usually stripped naked - the
New Testament gospels, dated to around the same time as Josephus, describe soldiers gambling for the robes of Jesus.
The 'nails' were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 inch (13 to 18 cm) long, with a square shaft 3/8 inch (1 cm) across. In some cases, the nails were gathered afterwards and used as healing amulets.
Emperor Constantine, the first Emperor known to receive a Christian
baptism, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire at the end of his reign.
Crucifixion in the Qur'an
The
Muslim Qur'an mentions crucifixion several times. In
Surah 7:124,
Pharaoh, around 1500-1200
BC, says that he will
crucify his chief wizards. Also, Surah 12:41 mentions Joseph saying that the
Pharaoh of the time (about 800-1100
BC) would crucify one of his prisoners.
'And the wizards fell down prostrate, crying: "We believe in the Lord of the Worlds, The Lord of Moses and Aaron". Pharaoh said: "Ye believe in Him before I give you leave! Lo! this is the plot that ye have plotted in the city that ye may drive its people hence. But ye shall come to know! Surely I shall have your hands and feet cut off upon alternate sides. Then I shall crucify you every one."' Surah 7:120-124
'O my two fellow-prisoners! As for one of you, he will pour out wine for his lord to drink; and as for the other, he will be crucified so that the birds will eat from his head. Thus is the case judged concerning which ye did inquire.' Surah 12:41
Japan
Tokugawa Shogunate
Crucifixion was used in
Japan before and during the
Tokugawa Shogunate. It was called
Haritsuke in Japanese.The victim—usually a sentenced criminal—was hoisted upon a T-shaped cross. Then,
executioners killed him with spears. The body was left to hang for a time before burial.
In
1597, twenty-six
Christians were nailed to crosses at
Nagasaki, Japan. Among those executed were
Paul Miki and
Pedro Bautista, a
Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the
Philippines.
Modern death on the cross
*Execution by crucifixion, while rare in recent times, was used at
Dachau during
the Holocaust and in a number of
wars, such as in Cambodia under the
Khmer Rouge and during the
Sino-Japanese war, where it was among the many methods of
torture and execution used by
Japanese soldiers against Asian civilians - largely in emulation of medieval Japanese military practices.
*During
World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified a
Canadian soldier on a tree or barn door with
bayonets or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the
1st Canadian Division. However, it is generally believed to be an allied propaganda invention (see for example [
1]).
*Photographic evidence exists positing that some victims of the
Armenian Genocide were crucified by
Ottoman soldiers.
*There are persistent stories that crucifixions continue to occur in certain parts of
Africa, particularly in
Sudan. According to reports, hundreds, if not thousands, of Christian Sudanese - like animists, associated with separatism from the predominantly islamic republic - have been nailed to crude crosses in remote areas on the plains, where access by reporters and Western witnesses is limited.
Al Jazeera reported in 2002 the crucifixion of 32 Christian priests and other males, some as young as their early teens. They were allegedly whipped severely and affixed to crosses with six-inch nails through their hands, ankles and genitals.
Crucifixion as a devotional practice
Since at least the mid-1800s, a group of
Catholic flagellants in
New Mexico called Hermanos de Luz ('Brothers of Light') have annually conducted reenactments of Jesus Christ's crucifixion during
Holy Week, where a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross. Some very devout Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on
Good Friday, to imitate the suffering of Jesus Christ. A notable example is the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of
Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of
Mexico City, since
1833. [
2]
Devotional crucifixions are also common in the
Philippines, even driving nails through the hands (e.g. a man vowed to do it 15 times after a difficult childbirth). In
San Pedro Cutad, devotee
Ruben Enaje has been crucified 20 times, as of 2006, during
Passion Week celebrations. [
3][
4]
In many cases the person portraying Jesus is previously subjected to
flagellation (e.g. flailing) and wears a
crown of thorns. Sometimes there is a whole
passion play, sometimes only the mortification of the flesh.
Parody
In a more jocular context, the victim of a prank (such as a bridegroom in 'macho' circles where he is traditionally abused at the end of his stag night) or of
hazing may be bound to a cross as a variation of
treeing.
On
October 26,
1996, a mock crucifixion was staged by
Extreme Championship Wrestling wrestlers Raven and
The Sandman for the
High Incident event held at the
ECW Arena. In this mock crucifixion, Raven tied Sandman to a cross and placed a crown of
barbed wire (mocking the Crown of Thorns) on Sandman's head. ECW and Raven subsequently (and for Raven, reluctantly) apologized for the incident. This incident was instrumental in
Kurt Angle signing with the
World Wrestling Federation instead of ECW, as Angle was at the show and was "horrified" by the goings on. Afterwards Angle threatened ECW owner
Paul Heyman with a lawsuit if Angle was ever associated, in any way, with the mock crucifixion.
On a taped edition of
WWF Monday Night Raw, which aired on
December 8,
1998 (recorded on
December 2),
The Undertaker handcuffed
Stone Cold Steve Austin, crucifix-style, to a large version of the Undertaker's symbol [
5], which was a combination of a shovel, pick, and sickle (the tools of a real undertaker); which resembled a cross. This caused announcer
Jim Ross to proclaim 'Austin has been crucified!' However, later that week, Ross suffered a bout of
Bells palsy, and WWF fans already started complaining about the event. To save face, the
WWF edited out all audio and video footage of Jim Ross from that episode and had
Michael Cole and
Jerry Lawler provide post-production commentary. In addition, when the crucifixion angle played, Cole said 'Austin has been tied to the Undertaker's symbol!'.
Shortly after
WrestleMania XV, the Undertaker mock-crucified
The Big Boss Man on his symbol. Finally, on the edition of
Monday Night Raw that had been aired on the Monday prior to
WWF Over the Edge 1999, the Undertaker attempted to mock-crucify Austin again, but Austin reversed it, causing the Undertaker to be crucified. The WWF, which has since become the WWE, has not staged a mock-crucifixion since.
Crucifixion was parodied in the comedy film
Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979).
Marilyn Manson has parodied the crucifixion of Jesus several times, in videos such as "I Don't Like The Drugs But The Drugs Like Me" and "Coma White".
*
Spartacus' revolt: Spartacus himself most likely died in battle, but approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200 km road between Capua and Rome circa 71 BC, as a warning to any other would-be rebels.
*
Jesus of Nazareth: The most well known victim of crucifixion in history, Jesus was condemned to crucifixion (most likely in AD 29) by Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea, at the instigation of the Jewish leaders who were scandalized by his claim to being the Messiah and his disdain for their religious traditions. The original Greek text of the Gospels leaves doubt on whether the instrument used to execute Jesus was actually a cross (see sub-article
Rendering of σταυρός (staurós)).
*
Saint Peter, Christian apostle: according to tradition, Peter was crucified upside down at his own request, as he did not feel worthy to die the same way as Jesus (for he had denied him three times previously). Note that upside-down crucifixion would not result in death from asphyxiation.
*
Saint Andrew, Christian apostle: according to tradition, crucified on an X-shaped cross, hence the name St. Andrew's Cross
*
Simeon of Jerusalem, 2nd
Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified 106-107
*
Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, according to medieval ballad poetry crucified at nine by local Jews in 1255
*
Archbishop Joachim of
Nizhny Novgorod: reportedly crucified upside down, on the Royal Doors of the Cathedral in
Sevastopol,
Ukrainian SSR in
1920
*
The death of Jesus at WikiChristian*
New Scientist article on cause of death in crucifixion.
*
"Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion" by Dr. Frederick Zugibe*
Jesus's death on the cross, from a medical perspective*
"Crucifixion in antiquity - The Anthropological evidence" By Joe Zias
*
Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion
